Write an informative essay: 2019

Tuesday, December 24, 2019

Ã¢â‚¬ËœExamine the Reasons Why Some Sociologists Choose Not to...

A questionnaire is a list of a research or survey questions asked to respondents, and designed to extract quantitative date. Questionnaires are easily distributed to the community and can be completed and collected on the spot or be emailed or posted back to the researcher. Self completed questionnaires are the most common survey as they are cheap and can be passed to a lot of people. Some sociologists tend not to use questionnaires because of their low response rate and lack of validity. Also, some people may give false information so some researchers like to stick to interviews and experiments for increased accuracy. I will explore why sociologists shy away from using questionnaires. Positivists favour questionnaires because theyÃ¢â‚¬ ¦show more contentÃ¢â‚¬ ¦A valid method is one that give a true picture of the peoples meaning and experiences, yet interpretivists argue that questionnaires are more likely to impose the researchers own meanings than to reveal those of the respondent. When a researcher chooses a question he automatically has decided that that is an important question and what is not. If researchers use close-ended questions, respondents cant include all the data they have to offer and have to fit their views into the question asked, if they use open ended questions the respondents have a chance to put all their meanings down, this could be more time consuming for collecting the date after. Shipman says when the researchers categories are not the respondents categories Ã¢â‚¬Ëœpruning and bendingÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ is inevitable. He determines questionnaires as straitjackets and undermines the validity of the data. Another way of getting a true picture of the r espondent is through triangulation- the use of 3 or more methods to achieve the same or similar results, it can be achieved through quantitative and qualitative data which makes it more reliable, questionnaires can be used adequately. In conclusion, it is clear that there are a lot of reasons as to why some sociologists choose not to use questionnaires when carrying out research. Some of the mainShow MoreRelatedStructured Interviews1122 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 5 PagesExamine the reasons why some sociologists choose to use structured interviews when conducting their research (20 marks) Many sociologists choose to use structured interviews when they are conducting their research, because by having a structured interview there are a set of prepared questions that are close-ended and already have pre-coded answers. One reason why researchers choose to use structured interviews is because they are cheap, quick and easy to do. This is because by going out and actuallyRead MoreResearch Methodology Essay4336 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 18 Pageswhat circumstances have to come about to lead to different phenomena to occur? Sociologists, psychologists, philosophers and social scientists have spent eons of time pondering on these questions. Research is the way in which these questions may be answered, but the question remains, as to what type of research leads us to the right answer or, if there is a right answer, what is the one true answer? If different research methods produce different answers, which is the right, the true answer and ifRead MoreCan You Be Happy Without God?8898 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 36 Pagesinterest. I then conducted brief secondary research to narrow down my choices. By the end of that process I reduced my list down to three broad topics; religion, life satisfaction and adolescence. After much con templation on which topic to further pursue I decided to combine all three and make my broad research topic the impact of religiosity on an adolescent individualÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s life satisfaction. In the following weeks I conducted thorough secondary research on my topic, looking through a range of booksRead Morebullet theory7360 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 30 Pagesindustriesamp;rdquo; of advertising and propaganda being utilized by industries and governments alike. In the 1930s, the Payne Fund, developed by the Motion Picture Research Council, studied the impact of motion pictures on children to see if the magic bullet effect was controllable. Even Hitler monopolized the mass media in the belief that he could use it unify the German public behind the Nazis in the 1940s. Function The theory amp;ldquo;suggests that the message is a bullet, fired from the amp;lsquo;mediaRead More3521 Unit 1 Essay example10967 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 44 Pagesliterature to justify a project proposal use appropriate language in project proposals Introduction Part of the work involved in a research project is the writing of the project proposal. The proposal is a brief account of the topic or area you have chosen to examine and a brief explanation of how you intend to investigate the topic. An effective project proposal can help you to convince your readers, such as your supervisor, that you have a worthwhile reason for conducting the project. It also shows thatRead MoreExploring the Reasons for the Underachievement of Ethnic Minority Children8167 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 33 PagesExploring the Reasons for the Underachievement of Ethnic Minority Children Rational ======== Every child goes through the same education system, every child works through the same Ã¢â‚¬Ëœcurriculum 2000Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ set by New Labour and every child sits the same exams up to the age of 16. So why are there marked differences in educational attainment for ethnic minority students? My main aim is to find out if racism is the main cause of the gap between different ethnic groupsRead MoreCoffee Culture17291 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 70 Pageschanges. We wanted to increase our knowledge about how these changes can make Sweden a more attractive country for coffee shops, like Starbucks, wanting to establish in Sweden. We choose to use a qualitative method with an abductive approach. To gather the primary data we interviewed one barista and sent questionnaires to staff at different big coffee shops in Sweden. The interview questions were made out of five categories of describing culture by Rugman and Hodgetts. These answers and a multipleRead MoreUGT in the 21st Century14999 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 60 PagesCOMMUNICATION SOCIETY, 2000, 3(1), 3Ã¢â‚¬â€œ37 Uses and Gratifications Theory in the 21st Century Thomas E. Ruggiero Communications Department University of Texas at El Paso Some mass communications scholars have contended that uses and gratifications is not a rigorous social science theory. In this article, I argue just the opposite, and any attempt to speculate on the future direction of mass communication theory must seriously include the uses and gratifications approach. In this articleRead MoreMultiple Intelligences Seminar and Workshop14464 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 58 Pagesare some benefits of using the multiple intelligences approach in my school? 7. How can applying M.I. theory help students learn better? 8. How can I find out more about M.I. theory? PART II Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Demonstration 1. Seeing MI in action 2. What do M.I. lesson plans look like? 3. Poll PART III Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Exploration 1. How will we explore multiple intelligences theory in the classroom? 2. How do I apply multiple intelligences (M.I.) theory in my classroom? 3. What are some simpleRead MoreStatement of Purpose23848 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 96 Pages.............................................................................. 11 History................................................................................................................................... 12 Psychology (Clinical--research)............................................................................................ 14 Psychology (cross-cultural) .................................................................................................. 16 Psychology (School)

Ã¢â‚¬ËœExamine the Reasons Why Some Sociologists Choose Not to...

Monday, December 16, 2019

The Number One Question You Must Ask for Informative Essay Samples on Herbs as Medicine

The Number One Question You Must Ask for Informative Essay Samples on Herbs as Medicine Excellent topics for speech on sociological questions may lead to positive outcome and self-education. There are a lot of varieties of essays, it is not hard to get rid of an eye on all your writing assignments. If you don't understand how to begin your essay or where to search for supporting data, we'll be pleased to help you. To make it simpler for you to compose a vital analysis essay, we've got a very helpful analysis writing template that will steer you through the most essential points. Informative Essay Samples on Herbs as Medicine In fact, daycares have some advantages and pitfalls. The price of implementing an information process is expensive. The price of installing, and maintaining the information process is comparatively significant. Reiterate Make sure you are addressing the technical, administrative and emotional facets of the customer concerns. It might be necessary to repeatedly acknowledge the customer emotion to defuse the situation and reassure the customer that you're attentive to the significance of the emotional distress together with the technical matter. While it is crucial to fix the technical issue, it's also appropriate to acknowledge the risks that create the emotional reaction. Dealing with people isn't easy particularly when you're offering services. Informative Essay Samples on Herbs as Medicine: No Longer a Mystery Visualization is the best method to memorize needed information. Weight training also assists in facilitating a better health and mental mindset. Purpose Weight training is a crucial portion of physical fitness along with workout routine. Training in Chinese herbalism might be another portion of a training program in acupuncture or it can stand alone. Have you ever heard a doctor say, If you would like to be healthy you must lose 50 pounds. In some remote regions of the Earth, herbs could be the sole treatment readily available to the vast majority of individuals. 1 important point to know about alternative medication and possibly the most important thing is it cannot fix everything and it doesn't claim to repair everything. It's usually known as treating the entire individual. Practitioners often talk in regard to attempting to take care of the root cause of disease and could prescribe herbs directed at correcting patterns of dysfunction as opposed to targeting the presenting symptoms. Functional training is connected with this evolution. Advanced training in pediatrics means that you'll be qualified to supply specialized nursing services to infants, young children and adolescents. Because of the emphasis on whole body therapy, natural medicine practitioners often offer patients lots of attention. Herbs have a tendency to be inexpensive in contrast to drugs. Herbal medicine probably presents a greater danger of adverse results and interactions than every other complementary therapy. Herbal medicine, also referred to as herbalism or botanical medicine, is a health system based on using plants or plant extracts that might be eaten or put on the epidermis. Using Informative Essay Samples on Herbs as Medicine After you submit your purchase, we start searching for the ideal writer to finish your assignment based on your requirements. You've got to comprehend what sort of an article you're going to work with, which means you can develop a proper tone and format of your upcoming essay. It would be helpful if it's something you are most passionate about so that you may write in great information. The first thing you've got to do is think of a topic that you nee d to right about. This section consists of two examples of very good college essays. Therefore, the matter of cost-effectiveness ought to be well reflected and either side of the coin should look well. By showing that you're not the last authority on this issue, you're perceived as humble and ready to learn. New Step by Step Roadmap for Informative Essay Samples on Herbs as Medicine Problems like bringing back lost lovers, bringing very good luck, passing examinations together with getting rich for prestigious reasons have a tendency to get achieved in a spiritual way. There are quite a lot of tactics to compose an essay so you'll hardly locate an all-included recipe for a great many essay occasions. It's well worth mentioning that, being in the info age, the usage of barbaric ways to fight rival groups has long ago been phased out. One of the greatest practices is imagining that you're attempting to explain your point to your granny.

Sunday, December 8, 2019

Lyme disease Essay Thesis Example For Students

Lyme disease Essay Thesis In the early 1970s, a mysterious clustering of arthritis occurred among children in Lyme, Connecticut, and surrounding towns. Medical researchers soon recognized the illness as a distinct disease, which they called Lyme disease. They subsequently described the clinical features of Lyme disease, established the usefulness of antibiotic therapy in its treatment, identified the deer tick as the key to its spread, and isolated the bacterium that caused it. Lyme disease is still mistaken for other diseases, and it continues to pose many other challenges: it can be difficult to diagnose because of the inadequacies of todays laboratory tests; it can be troublesome to treat in its later phases; and its prevention through the development of an effective vaccine is hampered by the elusive nature of the bacterium. Lyme disease was first recognized in 1975 after researchers investigated why unusually large numbers of children were being diagnosed with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis in Lyme and tw o neighboring towns. The investigators discovered that most of the affected children lived near wooded areas likely to harbor ticks. They also found that the childrens first symptoms typically started in the summer months coinciding with the height of the tick season. Several of the patients interviewed reported having a skin rash just before developing their arthritis, and many also recalled being bitten by a tick at the rash site. Further investigations resulted in the discovery that tiny deer ticks infected with a spiral-shaped bacterium or spirochete (which was later named Borrelia burgdorferi) were responsible for the outbreak of arthritis in Lyme. In Europe, a skin rash similar to that of Lyme disease had been described in medical literature dating back to the turn of the century. Lyme disease may have spread from Europe to the United States in the early 1900s but only recently became common enough to be detected. The ticks most commonly infected with B. burgdorferi usually fe ed and mate on deer during part of their life cycle. The recent resurgence of the deer population in the northeast and the influx of suburban developments into rural areas where deer ticks are commonly found have probably contributed to the diseases rising commonness. The number of reported cases of Lyme disease, as well as the number of geographic areas, in which it is found, has been increasing. Lyme disease has been reported in nearly all states in this country, although most cases are concentrated in the coastal northeast, Mid-Atlantic States, Wisconsin and Minnesota, and northern California. Lyme disease is endemic in large areas of Asia and Europe. Recent reports suggest that it is present in South America, too. Ticks that Most Commonly Transmit B. burgdorferi in the U.S. (These ticks are all quite similar in appearance.)Ixodes dammini -most common in the northeast and midwest Ixodes scapularis -found in south and southeast Ixodes pacificus -found on west coast Erythema Migrans. In most people, the first symptom of Lyme disease is a red rash known as erythema migrans (EM). The telltale rash starts as a small red spot that expands over a period of days or weeks, forming a circular, triangular, or oval shaped rash. Sometimes the rash resembles a bulls eye because it appears as a red ring surrounding a central clear area. The rash, which can range in size from that of a dime to the entire width of a persons back, appears within a few weeks of a tick bite and usually occurs at the site of a bite. As infection spreads, several rashes can appear at different sites on the body. Erythema migrans is often accompanied by symptoms such as fever, headache, stiff neck, body aches, and fatigue. Although these flu-like symptoms may resemble those of common viral inf ections, Lyme disease symptoms tend to persist or may occur intermittently. After several months of being infected by B. burgdorferi, slightly more than half of those people not treated with antibiotics develop recurrent attacks of painful and swollen joints that last a few days to a few months. The arthritis can shift from one joint to another; the knee is most commonly affected. About 10 to 20 percent of untreated patients will go on to develop chronic arthritis. Lyme disease can also affect the nervous system, causing symptoms such as stiff neck and severe headache (meningitis), temporary paralysis of facial muscles (Bells palsy), numbness, pain or weakness in the limbs, or poor motor coordination. More subtle changes such as memory loss, difficulty with concentration and a change in mood or sleeping habits have also been associated with Lyme disease. Nervous system abnormalities usually develop several weeks, months, or even years following an untreated infection. These symptoms often last for weeks or months and may recur. Heart Problems. Fewer than one out of ten Lyme disease patients develops heart problems, such as an irregular heartbeat, which can be signaled by dizziness or shortness of breath. These symptoms rarely last more than a few days or weeks. Such heart abnormalities generally surface several weeks after infection. Less commonly, Lyme disease can result in eye inflammation, hepatitis, and severe fatigue, although none of these problems is likely to appear without other Lyme disease symptoms being present. Lyme disease may be difficult to diagnose because many of its symptoms mimic those of other disorders. In addition, the only distinctive hallmark unique to Lyme disease-the erythema migrans rash-is absent in at least one-fourth of the people who become infected. Although a tick bite is an important clue for diagnosis, many patients cannot recall having been bitten recently by a tick. This is not surprising because the tick is tiny, and a ti ck bite is usually painless. When a patient with possible Lyme disease symptoms does not develop the distinctive rash, a physician will rely on a detailed medical history and a careful physical examination for essential clues to diagnosis, with laboratory tests playing a supportive role. Unfortunately, the Lyme disease microbe itself is difficult to isolate or culture from body tissues or fluids. Most physicians look for evidence of antibodies against B. burgdorferi in the blood to confirm the bacteriums role as the cause of a patients symptoms. Some patients experiencing nervous system symptoms may also undergo a spinal tap. Through this procedure doctors can detect brain and spinal cord inflammation and can look for antibodies in the spinal fluid. The inadequacies of the currently available antibody tests may prevent them from firmly establishing whether the Lyme disease bacterium is causing a patients symptoms. In the first few weeks following infection, antibody tests are not re liable because a patients immune system has not produced enough antibodies to be detected. Antibiotics given to a patient early during infection may also prevent antibodies from reaching detectable levels, even though the Lyme disease bacterium is the cause of the patients symptoms. Because some tests cannot distinguish Lyme disease antibodies from antibodies to similar organisms, patients may test positive for Lyme disease when their symptoms actually stem from other bacterial infections. A lack of standardization of antibody tests and poor quality control also contribute to inaccuracies in test results. Due to these pitfalls, physicians must rely on their clinical judgment in diagnosing someone with Lyme disease even though the patient does not have the distinctive erythema migrans rash. Such a diagnosis would be based on the history of a tick bite, the patients symptoms, a thorough ruling out of other diseases that might cause those symptoms, and other implicating evidence. This evidence could include such factors as an initial appearance of symptoms during the summer months when tick bites are most likely to occur, outdoor exposure in an area where Lyme disease is common, and a clustering of Lyme disease symptoms among family members. To improve the accuracy of Lyme disease diagnosis, NIH supported researchers are developing a number of new tests that promise to be more reliable than currently available procedures. Some of these detect distinctive protein fragments of the Lyme disease bacterium in fluid samples. NIH scientists are developing tests that use the highly sensitive genetic engineering technique, known as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), to detect extremely small quantities of the genetic material of the Lyme disease bacterium in body tissues and fluids. Several new methods to detect infection are under development in NIH laboratories. Scientists have isolated a protein of B. burgdorferi, called p39, that reacts strongly on blood tests. The pres ence of antibodies to this protein was found to be a strong indicator of the presence of B. burgdorferi. Although further research will be needed to determine how soon after infection it can detect the bacterium, p39 may prove to be an ideal test for Lyme disease. A somewhat different approach is the use of an assay based on two closely related spirochetal proteins that are not found in other species of bacterial spirochetes. This assay differs from blood tests now in use because it detects products of the spirochete itself rather than detecting human antibodies to the bacterium. Most Common Symptoms of Lyme Disease (One or more may be present at different times during infection) Early Infection:Rash (erythema migrans) Muscle and joint aches Headache Stiff neck Significant fatigue Fever Facial paralysis (Bells palsy) Meningitis Brief episodes of joint pain and swelling Less common:Eye problems such as conjunctivitis Heart abnormalities such as heart block and myocarditis Late Infect ion Arthritis, intermittent or chronic Even Less common:Neurologic conditions such as encephalitis or confusion Nearly all Lyme disease patients can be effectively treated with an appropriate course of antibiotic therapy. In general, the sooner such therapy is begun following infection, the quicker and more complete the recovery. Antibiotics, such as doxycycline or amoxicillin taken orally for a few weeks, can speed the healing of the erythema migrans rash and usually prevent subsequent symptoms such as arthritis or neurological problems. Patients younger than 9 years or pregnant or lactating women with Lyme disease are treated with amoxicillin or penicillin because doxycycline can stain the permanent teeth developing in young children or unborn babies. Patients allergic to penicillin are given erythromycin. Lyme disease patients with neurological symptoms are usually treated with the antibiotic ceftriaxone given intravenously once a day for a month or less. Most patients experience full recovery. Lyme arthritis may be treated with oral antibiotics. Patients with severe arthritis may be treated with ceftriaxone or penicillin given intravenously. To ease these patients discomfort and further their healing, the physician might also give anti-inflammatory drugs, draw fluid from affected joints, or surgically remove the inflamed lining of the joints. Lyme arthritis resolves in most patients within a few weeks or months following antibiotic therapy, although it can take years to disappear completely in some people. Some Lyme disease patients who are untreated for several years may be cured of their arthritis with the proper antibiotic regimen. If the disease has persisted long enough, however, it may irreversibly damage the structure of the joints. Physicians prefer to treat Lyme disease patients experiencing heart symptoms with antibiotics such as ceftriaxone or penicillin given intravenously for about 2 weeks. If these symptoms persist or are severe enough, patie nts may also be treated with corticosteroids or given a temporary internal cardiac pacemaker. People with Lyme disease rarely experience long-term heart damage. Following treatment for Lyme disease, some people still have persistent fatigue and achiness. This general malaise can take months to subside, although it generally does so spontaneously without requiring additional antibiotic therapy. Researchers are currently conducting studies to assess the optimal duration of antibiotic therapy for the various manifestations of Lyme disease. Investigators are also testing newly developed antibiotics for their effectiveness in countering the Lyme disease bacterium. Unfortunately, a bout with Lyme disease is no guarantee that the illness will be pre-vented in the future. The disease can strike more than once in the same individual if he or she is reinfected with the Lyme disease bacterium. At present, the best way to avoid Lyme disease is to avoid deer ticks. Although generally only about one percent of all deer ticks are infected with the Lyme disease bacterium, in some areas more than half of them harbor the microbe. Most people with Lyme disease become infected during the summer, when immature ticks are most prevalent. Except in warm climates, few people are bitten by deer ticks during winter months. Deer ticks are most often found in wooded areas and nearby grasslands, and are especially common where the two areas merge. Because the adult ticks feed on deer, areas where deer are frequently seen are likely to harbor sizable numbers of deer ticks. To help prevent tick bites, people entering tick infested areas should walk in the center of trails to avoid picking up ticks from overhanging grass and brush. To minimize skin exposure to both ticks and insect repellents, people outdoors in tick-infested areas should wear long pants and long-sleeved shirts that fit tightly at the ankles and wrists. As a further safeguard, people should wear a hat, tuck pant legs into soc ks, and wear shoes that leave no part of the feet exposed. To make it easy to detect ticks, people should wear light-colored clothing. To repel ticks, people can spray their clothing with the insecticide permethrin, which is commonly found in lawn and garden stores. Insect repellents that contain a chemical called DEET (N,NdiethylM-toluamide) can also be applied to clothing or directly onto skin. Although highly effective, these repellents can cause some serious side effects, particularly when high concentrations are used repeatedly on the skin. Infants and children may be especially at risk for adverse reactions to DEET. Pregnant women should be especially careful to avoid ticks in Lyme disease areas because the infection can be transferred to the unborn child. Such a prenatal infection can make the woman more likely to miscarry or deliver a stillborn baby. Once indoors, people should check themselves and their children for ticks, particularly in the hairy regions of the body. The immature deer ticks that are most likely to cause Lyme disease are only about the size of a poppy seed, so they are easily mistaken for a freckle or a speck of dirt. All clothing should be washed. Pets should be checked for ticks before entering the house, because they, too, can develop symptoms of Lyme disease. In addition, a pet can carry ticks into the house. These ticks could fall off without biting the animal and subsequently attach to and bite people inside the house. If a tick is discovered attached to the skin, it should be pulled out gently with tweezers, taking care not to squeeze the ticks body. An antiseptic should then be applied to the bite. Studies by NIH supported researchers suggest that a tick must be attached for many hours to transmit the Lyme disease bacterium, so prompt tick removal could prevent the disease. The risk of developing Lyme disease from a tick bite is small, even in heavily infested areas, and most physicians prefer not to treat patients bitten by ticks with antibiotics unless they develop symptoms of Lyme disease. Because Lyme disease is difficult to diagnose and sometimes does not respond to treatment, researchers are trying to create a vaccine that will protect people from the disorder. Vaccines work in part by prompting the body to generate antibodies. These custom shaped molecules lock onto specific proteins made by a virus or bacterium-often those proteins lodged in the microbes outer coat. Once antibodies attach to an invading microbe, other immune defenses are evoked to destroy it. Development of an effective vaccine for Lyme disease has been difficult to create for a number of reasons. Scientists need to find out how the immune system protects against the bacterium because people who have been infected once can acquire the infection again. In addition, there are several different strains of the bacterium, each with its own distinct set of proteins, and bacteria within an individual strain may change the shape of thei r proteins over time so that antibodies can no longer identify and lock onto them. Tick Eradication. In the meantime, researchers are trying to develop an effective strategy for ridding areas of deer ticks. Studies show that a single fall spraying of pesticide in wooded areas can substantially reduce the number of adult deer ticks residing there for as long as a year. Spraying on a large scale, however, may not be economically feasible and may prompt environmental or health concerns. Scientists are also pursuing biological control of deer ticks by introducing tiny stingerless wasps, which feed on immature ticks, into tick-infested areas. Researchers are currently assessing the effectiveness of this technique. Successful control of deer ticks will probably depend on a combination of tactics. More studies are needed before wide-scale tick control strategies can be implemented. Tips for Personal ProtectionAvoid tick-infested areas, especially in May, June, and July.*Wear light-colored clothing so that ticks can be easily spotted. Wear long-sleeved shirts and closed shoes and socks. Tuck pant legs into socks or boots and tuck shirt into pants. Apply insect repellent containing permethrin to pants, socks, and shoes, and compounds containing DEET on exposed skin. Do not overuse these products. Walk in the center of trails to avoid overgrown grass and brush. After being outdoors in a tick-infested area, remove, wash, and dry clothing. Inspect the body thoroughly and remove carefully any attached ticks. Check pets for ticks. How to Remove a TickTug gently but firmly with blunt tweezers near the head of the tick until it releases its hold on the skin. To lessen the chance of contact with the bacterium, try not to crush the ticks body or handle the tick with bare fingers. Swab the bite area thoroughly with an antiseptic to prevent bacterial infection. Although Lyme disease poses many challenges, they are challenges the medical research community is well equipped to meet . New information on Lyme disease is

Sunday, December 1, 2019

Withholding federal tax income an Example of the Topic Government and Law Essays by

Withholding federal tax income The essay discusses various responsibilities of employers in respect to withholding of taxes. It indicates that employers play a crucial role in the administration of tax laws and in the collection of taxes from the employees. The essay shows the importance of employers playing their responsibilities well as they ease the collection of taxes by making it time efficient and cost effective. The responsibilities of employers in respect to withholding of taxes are mandatory and therefore any employer who fails to follow them fully is liable under the tax laws. Need essay sample on "Withholding federal tax income" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed People Usually Tell Us: Who wants to write essay for me? Essay writer professionals suggest: Professionals Are Creating Successful College Custom Essays! Top Rated Essay Writing Service Essay Writing Service Reviews Best Essay Writing Service College Essay Writing Service Introduction Employees earn taxable income as a result of services they offer to their respective employers. Anyone earning some income is expected under the tax laws to pay all the taxes without delay to the tax authorities. One of the major principles of tax collection is being economical in collecting taxes. The tax laws thus require any employer remunerating taxable income to an employee to deduct the tax liable on the employees remuneration before paying an employee his or her remuneration net of withholding tax. The employer is then required to submit the withheld taxes to the tax authorities on behalf of his or her employees (Dimsuyu, 1998). Responsibilities of employers in withholding federal income tax All employers have the responsibility of withholding all the tax due on their employees in respect to the remuneration being paid to the employees. This implies that if an employee has other sources of income which are taxable, the employer cannot withhold taxes based on such incomes which are not earned from the employment offered by the employer. The employer thus indicates on the pay slip of the employer, the gross income earned by the employee and the withheld tax. Basically, by the employer withholding taxes liable on his employees to the tax authorities, he simply collects such taxes on behalf of such authorities (Schriebman, 2002). Each and every household employer is required under the tax laws to withhold the right taxes from the paychecks of their employees. Specifically, the employers have the responsibilities of withholding the following taxes; half of the employees Medicare and social security; federal income taxes which should be based on the chosen allowances by the employee found in form W-4; state income tax that is based on the allowances selected by an employee also on W-4 form; and finally, the employers have the responsibility of withholding state taxes. This implies that before an employer pays his or her employees their wages, the employer must deduct such taxes and pay them to the respective tax authorities. But all the deductions made by the employer in respect to taxes withheld must be well indicated on the employees pay slips in order to show how the net payable amount was arrived at (Ryesky, 2003). Employers are required to report all income earned by their employees and the employment taxes they withhold from the income of their employees. They should then deposit the full amount of these taxes to either a bank or any other authorized financial institutions on behalf of their employees. The authorized financial institutions where the withheld taxes are deposited have to meet all the deposit requirements as stipulated by the federal tax laws. Every year, an employer has the responsibility of filling in the FUTA report. This report shows the amount of tax withheld by the employer during the year, the income that was earned by the employees and the taxes paid by the employer on behalf of the employees to the federal tax authorities (Schriebman, 2002). It is the responsibility of the employers to ensure that before the first day of December every year, he or she has advised all the employees to fully update their tax withholding forms. Employers should ensure that all the employees have duly completed and filed form W-4, which is the withholding certificate of the employees, and if there is any alteration which have o be made should be done so in time. If the completion of such forms indicates that an employee has altered his or her name recently, the employer has the responsibility of advising such an employee to report such changes to SSA in order to be given the social security card which reflects such changes. The employers also have the responsibility of telling their employees that all the social security cards must be up dated regularly in order to show clearly the names that are applicable for purposes of employment (Schriebman, 2002). It is worth noting that the responsibilities of employers in respect to withholding of taxes are obligations under the tax laws. This therefore means that employers must fully comply with all the stipulated requirements under the tax laws regarding withholding of taxes. Employers who fail to comply with these laws are liable under the law. In addition, they have to pay the taxes which were due on the employees, which they did not withhold (Dimsuyu, 1998). Conclusion All employers are required by the tax laws to withhold certain taxes from the taxable incomes of their employees. The responsibilities of the employers regarding to withholding of taxes ensure that there is increased tax collection efficiency as taxes of several employers are collected from a central point as opposed from being collected from each and every employer. It is the responsibility of the employers to deposit the withheld taxes banks and other financial institutions that are duly authorized by the tax authorities. The employers also have the responsibility of advising their employees on various issues relating to withholding of taxes. Such responsibilities enable the employees to be more conversant with the tax laws and also be able to complete various forms that are required for purposes of withholding of taxes. Reference: Dimsuyu, I. (1998): New York State and City Withholding Obligation, Magazine article of The CPA Journal, Vol. 68 Ryesky, K.H. (2003): "In Employers We Trust": the Federal Right of Contribution under Internal Revenue Code Section 6672, Fordham Journal of Corporate & Financial Law, Vol. 9 Schriebman, R.S. (2002): IRS Tax Collection Procedures, ISBN 0808008447, CCH.

Tuesday, November 26, 2019

Human Right Violations

Human Right Violations Although the world is going through a process named "globalization"Ã‚ , in which countries integrate themselves economically and politically, the social aspect is often relegated. Consequently, unemployment and poverty are two of the infinite side effects of these times. As well as this, in some nations, people are victims of human rights violations. "Their rights"Ã‚ are clearly defined and described in the UN (United Nations), an organism created in the middle of the twentieth century.China is a perfect example to support this idea. The biggest country in the globe, as regards population, is affected by several human rights violations. This nation is changing its economy from a rigid socialist model, in which the state and the government were protagonists, to capitalism, allowing the development of the private sector. This policy is and will be beneficial for China's economic growth but, what will happen if nobody concerns about human rights? China prohibits freedom of speech, ex pression, association and religion.China, Shibangou Bridge underpass, Fuling, Yan...Moreover, China maintains a one-party state that tolerates no organised opposition. Authorities have the ability to influence the judicial power, promoting the arrest, detention and torture of political and religious activists and the restriction of religious and spiritual practices.China's engagement with the International community has resulted in meaningful improvements in the lives of hundreds of millions of Chinese. It is important to state that the most repressive periods in recent Chinese history occurred in times of international isolation. Exposure to the outside world has brought to the Chinese people social mobility and personal liberties. Therefore, people in china have a greater choice of employment, education and improved access to information. Moreover, despite repression of religious groups not recognised by the government, memberships in churches continue to grow. In addition to this, media and Internet showed Chinese people some international...

Friday, November 22, 2019

Biography of Musical Inventor Joseph H Dickinson

Biography of Musical Inventor Joseph H Dickinson Joseph Hunter Dickinson contributed several improvements to different musical instruments. Hes particularly known for improvements to player pianos that provided better actuation (the loudness or softness of the key strikes) and could play the sheet music from any point in the song. In addition to his accomplishments as an inventor, he was elected to the Michigan legislature, serving from from 1897 to 1900. The Life of Joseph H. Dickinson Sources say Joseph H. Dickinson was born in Chatham, Ontario, Canada on June 22, 1855, to Samuel and Jane Dickinson. His parents were from the United States and they returned to settle in Detroit in 1856 with the infant Joseph. He went to school in Detroit. By 1870, he had enlisted in the United States Revenue Service and served on the revenue cutter Fessenden for two years. He was hired at age 17 by the Clough Warren Organ Company, where he was employed for 10 years. This company was one of the largest organ makers in the world at that time andÃ‚ made over 5,000 ornate inlaid-wood organs per year from 1873 to 1916. Some of their organs were purchased by Queen Victoria of England and other royalty. Their Vocalion instrument was a leading church organ for many years. They also began to manufacture pianos under the brand names of Warren, Wayne, and Marville. The company later switched to manufacturing phonographs. During his first stintÃ‚ at the company, one of the large combination organs Dickinson designed for Clough Warren won a prize at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. Dickinson married Eva Gould of Lexington. He later formed the Dickinson Gould Organ Company with this father-in-law. As part of an exhibit on the accomplishments of black Americans, they sent an organ to the New Orleans Exposition of 1884. After four years, he sold his interest to his father-in-law and went back to the Clough Warren Organ Company. During his second stint with Clough Warren, Dickinson filed his numerous patents. These included improvements for reed organs and volume-controlling mechanisms. He was not the first inventor of the player piano, but he did patent an improvement that allowed the piano to start playing at any position on the music roll. His roller mechanism also allowed the piano to play its music in forward or reverse. Additionally, he is regarded as the main contributing inventor of the Duo-Art reproducing piano. He later served as superintendent of the Aeolian Companys experimental department in Garwood, New Jersey. This company was also one of the largest piano manufacturers of its time. He received over a dozen patents during these years, as player pianos were popular. Later, he continued to innovate with phonographs. He was elected to the Michigan House of Representatives as a Republican candidate in 1897, representing the first district of Wayne County (Detroit). He was re-elected in 1899. Joseph H. Dickinsons Patents #624,192, 5/2/1899, Reed Organ#915,942, 3/23/1909, Volume-controlling means for mechanical musical instruments#926,178, 6/29/1909, Volume-controlling means for mechanical musical instruments#1,028,996, 6/11/1912, Player-piano#1,252,411, 1/8/1918, Phonograph#1,295,802. 6/23.1916 Rewind device for phonographs#1,405,572, 3/20/1917 Motor drive for phonographs#1,444,832 11/5/1918 Automatic musical instrument#1,446,886 12/16/1919 Sound box for sound-reproducing machines#1,448733 3/20/1923 Multiple-record-magazine phonograph#1,502,618 6/8/1920 Player piano and the like#1,547,645 4/20/1921 Automatic musical instrument#1.732,879 12/22/1922 Automatic piano#1,808,808 10/15/1928 Music roll magazine

Thursday, November 21, 2019

Counseling related to death Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Counseling related to death - Essay Example Obituaries are a very common way of honoring and paying tribute to oneÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s loved ones through the local newspaper. There have been deaths of famous people such as Diana, princess of Wales; popular actress Ellen Terry and many more of whom the media used the coverage to communicate and express moral messages. In addition to this, the media also writes auto biographies on famous personalities having terminal conditions like cancer and AIDS, near to death experiences etc. This causes the readers and viewers to look up to them as heroes. Another source of media is the movies and cinemas which depict different approaches to death. It engages the audiences with range of questions and answers regarding death. Some sections of the society feel visual depictions of death in some movies are gruesome. (Field, 2003) II. Grief counselors To cope up with the grief and sadness, professionals help is required sometimes. Grief counselors have a very important role to play in facilitating the nor mal coping process of a person. Grief counselors are trained to handle emotional situations and help people cope with death of loved ones. They are expected to be emotionally stable, matured, understanding and not have a fear of death. This profession can be disturbing in many ways but also fulfilling to see people come out of the difficult situations. They are also required to have genuine and legitimate interest in helping people come to terms with such complicated situations. They are also required to be good listeners and good communicators who are sensitive to people issues. The counselors are required to be very compassionate and strong minded to help others deal with their grief. (Grief Counseling, 2011) What type of tasks do they have to perform? These counselors are required to set out 4 tasks of mourning. The person mourning is required to accept the reality slowly, to work on emotions associated with the loss which could mean mentally and physically; to learn how to live life without the person for survival and the last task would be to help the person find a new place in another persons emotional life.( Bereavement counseling) The main goal of a grief counselor varies from person to person and the kind of loss. However, working with a typical client the goal of a counselor is to- Educate the person about the grieving process and ensure information is provided at every stage Listening to the client and offering non judgmental advice would provide additional support Creating a plan for the client to move on with their life Help the client bond with the deceased through letter writing, talking and performing rituals. (Grief Counselor, 2008) Find out how people are prepared for work that involves death? To become a grief counselor, emotional competence is required which is a key component of this profession. This profession also requires people to have emotions in control and being supportive. Many grief counselors are professionally qualified to handl e such situations and help people cope up with the loss. (Grief Counselor, 2008) How do they feel about the work and any aspect they find difficult? Most of the grief counselors choose this profession only if they are emotionally strong and are good listeners. This profession is a proven and an effective way of helping people to get through their emotional anxieties. In majority of the cases, the actions of the grief coun

Tuesday, November 19, 2019

Bullying and harassment can be a problem in healthcare workforce Essay

Bullying and harassment can be a problem in healthcare workforce culture. Create a position statement addressing the role of the - Essay Example Dealing with such issues is primarily necessary in order to develop a healthy work culture within the organization (Bullying and harassment at work: a good practice guide for RCN negotiators and health care managers, n.d., p.1). The present study addresses the role of healthcare organizations and their team members in response to issues arising from bullying and harassment, relevantly discussing on the ANMC competencies as well. Bullying and Harassment in Healthcare Organization: Bullying generally involves making wrong use of oneÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s power to frighten or hurt the feelings of others who are less powerful. Such behavior is usually malicious and insulting in nature, and nurses in organization are most commonly the victims of such behaviors. Harassment is essentially different from bullying in that it involves intentionally affecting the self-respect of men and women working in organizations. Bullying and harassment are either targeted to individuals or they may affect individuals in groups. Although effects of such acts might vary with individuals, but in general, they negatively affect the self-respect and esteem of individuals and make it difficult for them to effectively perform while they are present in the organization (Barber, 2012, pp.299-300). ... equently, the quality of care in the organization also gets affected, along with poor job satisfaction of the employees, increased turnover, and professional disconnection (Vessey, DeMarco and DiFazio, 2011, pp.134-149). Thus it is essential that measures are considered to prevent and control such incidents to achieve enhanced performance and quality of care which holds the greatest priority in a healthcare organization. ANMC Competencies: It would be suitable to discuss the ANMC (Australian Nursing and Midwifery Council) competencies that focus on the role of healthcare organization in addressing challenges of bullying and harassment in the work culture. The standards set by this council clearly states the assessment needs of competencies of nurses and the expectations that the organizations have from them in meeting the demands of effective healthcare delivery. Thus based on national competency standards, nurses have to deliver as per the legal policies of healthcare delivery, be a ccountable for their activities and performance, recognize practices that are unprofessional, works ethically, integrates organizational polices and guidelines along with the standards of the organization, maintain the organizationÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s culture, values and dignity, make effective use of available resources, integrates nursing knowledge and skills towards effective healthcare to patients, participates in improvement of healthcare quality, participates in the development of organization and profession contributing positively towards the profession of others as well, conducts assessment on nursing delivery, plans to achieve organizational goals in an integrated manner focused on continuity of care, responds effectively to changes in nursing behaviors and standards, assists others for better

Saturday, November 16, 2019

Isolated figures denied Essay Example for Free

Isolated figures denied Essay Isolated figures denied the fulfilment they crave by forces that appears to conspire against them. To what extent is this true of the characters lives from your understanding of The Melancholy Hussar of the German Legion? This short story is based on two love triangles, at the apex of both being Phyllis, a secluded young woman who lives alone with her father, a failed doctor in an isolated farmhouse outside Weymouth. It is described as an obscure island nook which encapsulates the fact that there was no fresh work for the failed doctor, Phyllis father. One day Richard Gould, a failed businessman, turns up at her door and after a short courtship asks for her hand in marriage. The father immediately accepts this offer as he gets the impression that Gould is of higher social status than him and as the sole benefactor he would profit from their marriage. However, his intentions were well made and although convenient, Goulds act had forced her father into a mistaken calculation. In his pursuit of illusions, he misses several points, such as the fact he had made her fathers acquaintance before he made hers, giving the impression that he was looking in desperation for a bride. Despite of first impressions, Gould is, in fact, poor as a crow but he gives an impression of having class status. The marriage arrangements were not based on love but were simply a convenience, which results in it being for material security rather than a romantic affair. Gould is then forced to leave to for Bath, an excuse about his father covering up his pecuniary condition leaving Phyllis bemused. The date of his return passed and winter arrived. This change of season is a metaphor, which represents the colour of Phyllis mood, described now as lonely in the extreme as she had no knowledge of why her husband to be had delayed his return. The change back to spring represents a change in Phyllis fortunes. Although Gould had kept in contact with her through regular yet formal letters, there was still an uncertainty in her condition. Phyllis loyalty however did not waver, which is meant to represent the passivity of women at that time in a male-dominated society. At this change, however, a new influence invades her life, which charged all youthful thought with emotional interest. This is the presence of the York Hussars, a military regiment taken from Germany to serve in Britain. They were renowned for their foreign air and mustachios which drew crowds of spectators wherever they travelled which shows Hardys evident eye for detail that appears time again throughout the story. Phyllis was sitting on top of a wall at the base of her garden, apparently a favourite spot for her from childhood, when she sees an alien figure walk up the path. One of the soldiers from the Hussars camped nearby was walking up the path, with the manner of someone who wishes to escape company. He is in contrast to the splendid men who usually are the visual front to the Hussars and it seems as though this soldier wished to escape the rigours of military life. The soldier notices Phyllis on the wall, who was dressed in white raiment typically the colour of innocence and inexperience. She is captivated by him and falls in love at first sight. After a few days of this they start talking. She finds out his name is Matthaus Tina and how he was forcibly removed from his home to join the army and had quickly reached the rank of corporal. He was well educated and had soon proved himself in the strongly class-based society of the army. These interviews occurred on a daily basis; soon the conversation spread to his life at home and his longing for his mother. Hardy introduces a scholarly influence by comparing her pity of him to that of Desdemona, a character from Othello, a tragedy by Shakespeare. This is an apt comparison, as the piece itself will eventually turn into a tragedy full of mistaken judgements, well-intentioned actions and undeserved misfortune. The wall is a metaphor for the boundary between them; it is described as being in disrepair, which indicates the unstable base for their romance and the lack of unity. All through the story this wall remains between them until finally when Phyllis attempts to break free. She learns that although the regiment appears happy in fact it was pervaded by a dreadful melancholy powered by a longing for the return for their home showing a background of natural prejudice. This need was driven for a hatred of their English officers and English attitude in general. Matthaus is said to suffer one of the worst from this home-woe and Phyllis pities him but still declined any form of physical contact or even permit him to cross the boundary line of the wall. Coincidentally news reached Phyllis of Gould through the village of how he only had a half-understanding of their current arrangements and that it was still not finalised. Now as this was still a rumour, it would be indecent of Dr. Grove to approach Gould but it overshadowed all previous thoughts of marriage. This rumour was also backed up with the fact that Goulds letters had become more infrequent. Phyllis heart sank within her as she recognised the fact that her engagement had come to nothing. Despite of this father had noticed her attachment to Matthaus, he warned her not to go outside the boundary in her purpose of pursuing him, effectively making her a prisoner of her own home. However, she had no intention of leaving the garden however and the meetings continued as before. Then one evening an unforeseen accident destroyed her plans said to be decided by fate. She had been delayed by chance and Matthaus waited at the gate for her. The time he was due back in camp came and went but still he stayed. When she finally met him he was extremely late and on his return she heard that he had been stripped of his rank. The tragic consequence of this was that the chances of her father letting her marry him if Gould did not materialise had been slim but now they were practically nil. It was at this point that she makes one of the greatest decisions of her life. Matthaus had suggested that he was planning an escape from the army with several close companions and return to Germany and his mother. At first she seems amazed but then uncertainty steps in I fear I am ruining you and your prospects. However eventually she was persuaded but questions their route to freedom and how they propose to achieve it. Their scheme included stealing a boat and crossing across the channel to France. Here they would hike to Germany using their army wages to buy food and shelter. He asks to meet her just off the highway (symbolic of a turning point in her life) from where they should flee. He tells her that a friend of his, Christoph would also join them along with two others not named but who detested British authority. Coincidentally when she returned home, however, she found out that her father had spotted her with Matthaus. A confrontation occurred but her father had already decided she should go to her aunts to resist the temptation. He had still not given up faith on Gould, as he believed it was in best interest for her to marry him showing a paternal domination of his family. Her heart died within her as she heard this news and the house became like a prison to Phyllis, so she let her mind fly to the prospects of Matthaus scheme. Her confidence in Matthaus was fulfilled. On her return, she arranged to meet him at a junction off the main road the following week and when the time arose she waited just off the road hidden in a position where she could see any passers-by. The symbolic junction of the main road represents another turning point in Phyllis life where she has an option of which path to choose. She then hears a carriage come down the hill and stop nearby and as fate would have it Humphrey Gould, long awaited, stepped out. The carriage came down the hill as though Gould was lowering himself to Phyllis, in terms of class status. He talked to the driver about a present he had bought for Phyllis and he admits to treating her rather badly. In a rush of indecisiveness, Phyllis tries to make up her mind; should she be loyal to her father and Gould and return home or follow her instincts and leave to a new life. This again represents Phyllis lack of decisive action and passivity of women at that time and this concept is repeated several times throughout the story. At this point Matthaus climbs over the gate behind her and presses her to his breast. This is the first time that the metaphorical boundary of the wall has not divided them in their relationship. Phyllis left with them and after a long night of travelling to the coast they meet with the friend, Christoph, just before sunrise. At this point Phyllis makes her final decision and they separate for the last time on a hill overlooking the sea, dooming their relationship itself a metaphor as the sea represents freedom and this is simply describing how close she has come yet as it is dark she is still blind to it, her future an uncertainty. After she returns to her house, she finds Gould with an expensive gift a looking glass which won Phyllis admiration and until that point she had regretted leaving Matthaus. However, things were to take a turn for the worse tragically after Matthaus had left. She finds out that whilst he had been away he had met a new lady, who would be a much better choice as she came from the same upper class background as Gould yet another example of class distinction which was obviously very powerful at that time. This shows how the value of money dictates Goulds priorities. It is an irony that she finds this out on that day, as she would then not have hesitated to run away with Matthaus. Phyllis was shocked at this because she viewed Gould as a person who would confide every last detail of truth with her judging by the information in his letters. She retreated to the only place where she could be alone the old wall-where she dreams about what her life could have been like had she taken the other route. One morning those dreams are brought to an abrupt halt. On a morning described as being broke in fog and mist behind which the faint outlines of tents and the camp were visible from the wall and this is against the permanence and regularity of the natural landscape. The mood is also set in an almost slow-time as Hardy describes in minute detail the landscape, such as every blade of grass was weighted with little golden globes, an image captivating the idealistic morning. As she watched in melancholy regard she sees a procession led by an English colonel, who represents the cultural background of Anglo German hostilities. Two prisoners are led in front of a firing squad, clearly Matthaus and Christoph. After a prayer, they were executed in front of the entire regiment and their bodies ordered to be turned out of their coffins as an example to the men by the English Colonel, resented by the men. Tragically it turned out that they had stolen the boat as planned, and at first sight of land thought it was France and went ashore. It turned out it was Guernsey and the men were arrested and sent back to England so it was ironic that this mission that this mission seemed doomed to failure. It was simply undeserved misfortune they had arrived in the wrong place and a fault in navigation. On arrest, they had sacrificed themselves for the two other comrades by claiming to be ringleaders. Whilst the others had received a flogging, the punishment for desertion was death and so this order was carried out. As a consequence Phyllis symbolically died of a broken heart and was buried near where the two men lie. The idea of the love triangles that was stated at the start of this essay are the heart of the story. At the centre of both is Phyllis but on one is Gould and Dr. Grove her father. On the second is Matthaus and his mother, who Phyllis longs to be with. This story is an example of the number of external factors that can shape peoples destinies in life. It shows how chance events, such as Phyllis sitting on the wall at the time of Matthaus arrival along with tragic circumstances that arise, can affect the course of change. The idea is that we are powerless to control our destiny, and seeming coincidences may appear to be pre-ordained but fate is out of our control.

Thursday, November 14, 2019

Warships :: essays research papers

Warships Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ The history of warships goes back in history to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Their ships were called galleys. The galleys were powered by oarsmen. The galley had a sharp point in the front for ramming other ships. In the A. D. 700's, the Vikings invented the long ship. It weighed less than the galley and was stronger and more seaworthy. The Viking's controlled the seas until the 1000's. By the 1500's most warships carried guns, and later became heavily armed ships. Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Aircraft carriers are the largest and most powerful warships. It has a large flight deck that enables planes to take off and land on the runway. They have radars that detect incoming planes and any missiles. The aircraft carrier is about 1000 ft. long and can carry 85 to 95 planes. They can also reach speeds of 30 knots. Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Amphibious warships land troops, weapons, and vehicles on the beach. They don't have launching or landing equipment. These ships can carry 20 to 30 helicopters as well as troops and vehicles. Amphibious warships are about 800 ft. long and can travel about 20 knots. Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Cruisers escort carriers and defend them from air and submarine attacks. Modern cruisers are called guided missile cruisers. They carry supersonic missiles that can be fired at planes from 15 to 85 miles away. Cruisers are about 600 ft. long and travel at speeds of more than 30 knots. Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Destroyers are mostly used to defend aircraft carriers, amphibious warships, and merchant ships. They are used for attacking enemy shores and planning out search and rescue operations. Destroyers carry one or two helicopters to attack submarines. Destroyers range in length of 375 to 560 ft. They can also reach speeds of 30 to 33 knots. Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Frigates are mostly used to defend amphibious ships and merchant ships against enemy submarines.

Tuesday, November 12, 2019

Political Philosophy and Plato Essay

Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary Aristophanes. Many would claim that PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s dialogues are the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity. Through his portrayal in PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s dialogues, Socrates has become renowned for his contribution to the field of ethics, and it is this Platonic Socrates who also lends his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method, or elenchus. The latter remains a commonly used tool in a wide range of discussions, and is a type of pedagogy in which a series of questions are asked not only to draw individual answers, but also to encourage fundamental insight into the issue at hand. It is PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s Socrates that also made important and lasting contributions to the fields of epistemology and logic, and the influence of his ideas and approach remains strong in providing a foundation for much western philosophy that followed. As one recent commentator has put it, Plato, the idealist, offers Ã¢â‚¬Å"an idol, a master figure, for philosophy. A Saint, a prophet of the Ã¢â‚¬ËœSun-GodÃ¢â‚¬â„¢, a teacher condemned for his teachings as a heretic. Ã¢â‚¬ Yet, the Ã¢â‚¬ËœrealÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ Socrates, like many of the other ancient philosophers, remains, at best, enigmatic and, at worst, unknown. Perhaps his most important contribution to Western thought is his dialectic method of inquiry, known as the Socratic method or method of Ã¢â‚¬Å"elenchusÃ¢â‚¬ , which he largely applied to the examination of key moral concepts such as the Good and Justice. It was first described by Plato in the Socratic Dialogues. To solve a problem, it would be broken down into a series of questions, the answers to which gradually distill the answer a person would seek. The influence of this approach is most strongly felt today in the use of the scientific method, in which hypothesis is the first stage. The development and practice of this method is one of SocratesÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ most enduring contributions, and is a key factor in earning his mantle as the father of political philosophy, ethics or moral philosophy, and as a figurehead of all the central themes in Western philosophy. To illustrate the use of the Socratic method; a series of questions are posed to help a person or group to determine their underlying beliefs and the extent of their knowledge. The Socratic method is a negative method of hypothesis elimination, in that better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. It was designed to force one to examine oneÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s own beliefs and the validity of such beliefs. In fact, Socrates once said, Ã¢â‚¬Å"I know you wonÃ¢â‚¬â„¢t believe me, but the highest form of Human Excellence is to question oneself and others. Ã¢â‚¬ Philosophical beliefs The beliefs of Socrates, as distinct from those of Plato, are difficult to discern. Little in the way of concrete evidence exists to demarcate the two. The lengthy theories given in most of the dialogues are those of Plato, and some scholars think Plato so adapted the Socratic style as to make the literary character and the philosopher himself impossible to distinguish. Others argue that he did have his own theories and beliefs, but there is much controversy over what these might have been, owing to the difficulty of separating Socrates from Plato and the difficulty of interpreting even the dramatic writings concerning Socrates. Consequently, distinguishing the philosophical beliefs of Socrates from those of Plato and Xenophon is not easy and it must be remembered that what is attributed to Socrates might more closely reflect the specific concerns of these thinkers. The matter is complicated because the historical Socrates seems to have been notorious for asking questions but not answering, claiming to lack wisdom concerning the subjects about which he questioned others. Socratic Paradoxes Many of the beliefs traditionally attributed to the historical Socrates have been characterized as Ã¢â‚¬Å"paradoxalÃ¢â‚¬ because they seem to conflict with common sense. The following are among the so-called Socratic Paradoxes. Ã¢â‚¬ ¢No one desires evil. Ã¢â‚¬ ¢No one errs or does wrong willingly or knowingly. Ã¢â‚¬ ¢VirtueÃ¢â‚¬â€all virtueÃ¢â‚¬â€is knowledge. Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Virtue is sufficient for happiness. The phrase Socratic paradox can also refer to a self-referential paradox, originating in SocratesÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ phrase, Ã¢â‚¬Å"I know that I know nothing noble and goodÃ¢â‚¬ . Knowledge One of the best known sayings of Socrates is Ã¢â‚¬Å"I only know that I know nothingÃ¢â‚¬ . The conventional interpretation of this remark is that SocratesÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ wisdom was limited to an awareness of his own ignorance. Socrates believed wrongdoing was a consequence of ignorance and those who did wrong knew no better. The one thing Socrates consistently claimed to have knowledge of was Ã¢â‚¬Å"the art of loveÃ¢â‚¬ , which he connected with the concept of Ã¢â‚¬Å"the love of wisdomÃ¢â‚¬ , i. e. , philosophy. He never actually claimed to be wise, only to understand the path a lover of wisdom must take in pursuing it. It is debatable whether Socrates believed humans (as opposed to gods like Apollo) could actually become wise. On the one hand, he drew a clear line between human ignorance and ideal knowledge; on the other, PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s Symposium (DiotimaÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s Speech) and Republic (Allegory of the Cave) describe a method for ascending to wisdom. In PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s Theaetetus (150a), Socrates compares himself to a true matchmaker (promnestikos), as distinguished from a panderer ( proagogos). This distinction is echoed in XenophonÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s Symposium (3. 20), when Socrates jokes about his certainty of being able to make a fortune, if he chose to practice the art of pandering. For his part as a philosophical interlocutor, he leads his respondent to a clearer conception of wisdom, although he claims he is not himself a teacher (Apology). His role, he claims, is more properly to be understood as analogous to a midwife ( ? ? maia). Socrates explains that he is himself barren of theories, but knows how to bring the theories of others to birth and determine whether they are worthy or mere Ã¢â‚¬Å"wind eggsÃ¢â‚¬ ( ? ? anemiaion). Perhaps significantly, he points out that midwives are barren due to age, and women who have never given birth are unable to become midwives; they would have no experience or knowledge of birth and would be unable to separate the worthy infants from those that should be left on the hillside to be exposed. To judge this, the midwife must have experience and knowledge of what she is judging. Virtue Bust of Socrates in the Palermo Archaeological Museum. Socrates believed the best way for people to live was to focus on self-development rather than the pursuit of material wealth. He always invited others to try to concentrate more on friendships and a sense of true community, for Socrates felt this was the best way for people to grow together as a populace. His actions lived up to this: in the end, Socrates accepted his death sentence when most thought he would simply leave Athens, as he felt he could not run away from or go against the will of his community; as mentioned above, his reputation for valor on the battlefield was without reproach. The idea that humans possessed certain virtues formed a common thread in SocratesÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ teachings. These virtues represented the most important qualities for a person to have, foremost of which were the philosophical or intellectual virtues. Socrates stressed that Ã¢â‚¬Å"virtue was the most valuable of all possessions; the ideal life was spent in search of the Good. Truth lies beneath the shadows of existence, and it is the job of the philosopher to show the rest how little they really know. Politics It is often argued that Socrates believed Ã¢â‚¬Å"ideals belong in a world only the wise man can understandÃ¢â‚¬ , making the philosopher the only type of person suitable to govern others. In PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s dialogue the Republic, Socrates was in no way subtle about his particular beliefs on government. He openly objected to the democracy that ran Athens during his adult life. It was not only Athenian democracy: Socrates objected to any form of government that did not conform to his ideal of a perfect republic led by philosophers, and Athenian government was far from that. It is, however, possible that the Socrates of PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s Republic is colored by PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s own views. During the last years of SocratesÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ life, Athens was in continual flux due to political upheaval. Democracy was at last overthrown by a junta known as the Thirty Tyrants, led by PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s relative, Critias, who had been a student of Socrates. The Tyrants ruled for about a year before the Athenian democracy was reinstated, at which point it declared an amnesty for all recent events. SocratesÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ opposition to democracy is often denied, and the question is one of the biggest philosophical debates when trying to determine exactly what Socrates believed. The strongest argument of those who claim Socrates did not actually believe in the idea of philosopher kings is that the view is expressed no earlier than PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s Republic, which is widely considered one of PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s Ã¢â‚¬Å"MiddleÃ¢â‚¬ dialogues and not representative of the historical SocratesÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ views. Furthermore, according to PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s Apology of Socrates, an Ã¢â‚¬Å"earlyÃ¢â‚¬ dialogue, Socrates refused to pursue conventional politics; he often stated he could not look into otherÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s matters or tell people how to live their lives when he did not yet understand how to live his own. He believed he was a philosopher engaged in the pursuit of Truth, and did not claim to know it fully. SocratesÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ acceptance of his death sentence, after his conviction by the Boule (Senate), can also be seen to support this view. It is often claimed much of the anti-democratic leanings are from Plato, who was never able to overcome his disgust at what was done to his teacher. In any case, it is clear Socrates thought the rule of the Thirty Tyrants was at least as objectionable as Democracy; when called before them to assist in the arrest of a fellow Athenian, Socrates refused and narrowly escaped death before the Tyrants were overthrown. He did however fulfill his duty to serve as Prytanis when a trial of a group of Generals who presided over a disastrous naval campaign were judged; even then he maintained an uncompromising attitude, being one of those who refused to proceed in a manner not supported by the laws, despite intense pressure. Judging by his actions, he considered the rule of the Thirty Tyrants less legitimate than the Democratic Senate that sentenced him to death. Contributions of Socrates One: Awakened thinkers to the need to examine and reexamine their political, moral, and philosophical views in order to discover and root out errors and misconceptions that impede progress. Socrates accomplished this task by demonstrating, through cross-examination of people he encountered, that many accepted precepts, conventions, and beliefs were based on faulty logic or outright errors. A quotation attributed to him states: Ã¢â‚¬Å"The unexamined life is not worth living. Ã¢â‚¬ In other words, a human being must not be complacent and self-satisfied; instead, he must be ever probing, exploring, and reconnoitering his soul in order to discover ways to improve. Two: Effectively rebutted a central tenet of the Sophists, traveling teachers who charged fees for educating young men. This tenet maintained that the guiding principles of a society, such as justice and truth, were relative conceptsÃ¢â‚¬â€œthat is, they changed according to the needs of men in a particular time and place. What was considered right and just in Athens was not necessarily right and just in another society, the Sophists maintained. One manÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s virtue could be another manÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s vice. Three: Pioneered the use of inductive reasoning to draw logical conclusions. According to Aristotle, Socrates founded the Ã¢â‚¬Å"scientific method. Ã¢â‚¬ Four: Demonstrated that wrongdoing results from ignorance. If a man lies, Socrates might have said, he does so because he does not understand the benefits of telling the truth. Five: Inspired philosophers in his own time and in later times to pursue the truth through rigorous analysis of available, facts, opinions, and so on. Two of the most important philosophers in the history of the world, Plato and Aristotle, both esteemed Socrates as a supreme thinker and infused their philosophical systems with Socratic thought. Plato was a pupil of Socrates, and Aristotle was a pupil of Plato. Six: Showed the world the meaning of integrity and moral commitment by accepting a death sentence rather than recanting his principles. Seven: Made clear that a human being is more than his appearance. Socrates was ugly, wore old clothes, and walked barefooted through the streets of Athens. But his mind and the words he spoke were beautiful. The trial of Socrates The Trial of Socrates refers to the trial and the subsequent execution of the classical Athenian philosopher Socrates in 399 BC. Socrates was tried on the basis of two notoriously ambiguous charges: corrupting the youth and impiety. More specifically, SocratesÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ accusers cited two Ã¢â‚¬Å"impiousÃ¢â‚¬ acts: Ã¢â‚¬Å"failing to acknowledge the gods that the city acknowledgesÃ¢â‚¬ and Ã¢â‚¬Å"introducing new deities. Ã¢â‚¬ A majority of the 501 dikasts (Athenian citizens chosen by lot to serve as jurors) voted to convict him. Consistent with common practice, the dikasts determined SocratesÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ punishment with another vote. Socrates was ultimately sentenced to death by drinking a hemlock-based liquid. The accuser Meletus swore before the Archon, a state office-holder with primarily religious duties. Having decided that there was a case to answer, the Archon summoned Socrates to appear before a jury of Athenian citizens, to answer charges of corrupting the youth of Athens and impiety. Athenian juries were drawn by lottery from a group of male citizen volunteers. Unlike trials in many modern societies, majority verdicts were the rule rather than the exception. Neither Plato nor Xenophon mentions the number of SocratesÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ judges, though PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s Apology 35a-b does suggest some definite boundaries: that if just thirty of the votes had been otherwise then he would have been acquitted, and that (perhaps) less than three fifths voted against him After the vote on SocratesÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ guilt, Socrates and his prosecutor suggested alternative sentences. Socrates, after expressing his surprise of the little amount he needed to be have been found innocent, jokingly suggested free meals at the Prytaneum, a particular honor held for city benefactors and winners at the Olympic Games, then offered to pay a fine of 100 drachmae, which was a fifth of his property and a testament to SocratesÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ poverty. Finally he settled on the sum of 3000 drachmae, put forward by Plato, Crito, Critobulus, and Apollodorus, who guaranteed the payment. His prosecutor proposed the death penalty. The jury voted for death as the penalty Ã¢â‚¬â€œ the larger majority showing (Diogenes Laertius 2. 42). Perhaps Socrates had lost support by his slighting and unapologetic tone. SocratesÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s followers encouraged him to flee, and citizens expected him to do so and were probably not averse to it; but he refused on principle. Apparently in accordance with his philosophy of obedience to law, he carried out his own execution, by drinking the hemlock provided to him. Socrates died at the age of 70. Most scholars see the conviction and execution of Socrates as a deliberate choice made by the famous philosopher himself. If the accounts of Plato and Xenophon are reasonably accurate, Socrates sought not to persuade jurors, but rather to lecture and provoke them. The trial and execution of Socrates produced the first martyr for free speech. PLATO Plato 428/427 BC Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 348/347 BC), was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science. In the famous words of A. N. Whitehead: The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. I do not mean the systematic scheme of thought which scholars have doubtfully extracted from his writings. I allude to the wealth of general ideas scattered through them. PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s sophistication as a writer is evident in his Socratic dialogues; thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters have been ascribed to him. PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s texts. PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s dialogues have been used to teach a range of subjects, including philosophy, logic, ethics, rhetoric, and mathematics PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s philosophical views had many societal implications, especially on the idea of an ideal state or government. There is some discrepancy between his early and later views. Some of the most famous doctrines are contained in the Republic during his middle period, as well as in the Laws and the Statesman. However, because Plato wrote dialogues, it is assumed that Socrates is often speaking for Plato. This assumption may not be true in all cases. Plato, through the words of Socrates, asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure corresponding to the appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual soul. The appetite/spirit/reason stand for different parts of the body. The body parts symbolize the castes of society Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Productive, which represents the abdomen. (Workers) Ã¢â‚¬â€ the labourers, carpenters, plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. These correspond to the Ã¢â‚¬Å"appetiteÃ¢â‚¬ part of the soul. Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Protective, which represents the chest. (Warriors or Guardians) Ã¢â‚¬â€ those who are adventurous, strong and brave; in the armed forces. These correspond to the Ã¢â‚¬Å"spiritÃ¢â‚¬ part of the soul. Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Governing, which represents the head. (Rulers or Philosopher Kings) Ã¢â‚¬â€ those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in love with wisdom, well suited to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the Ã¢â‚¬Å"reasonÃ¢â‚¬ part of the soul and are very few. According to this model, the principles of Athenian democracy (as it existed in his day) are rejected as only a few are fit to rule. Instead of rhetoric and persuasion, Plato says reason and wisdom should govern. As Plato puts it: Ã¢â‚¬Å"Until philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men genuinely and adequately philosophise, that is, until political power and philosophy entirely coincide, while the many natures who at present pursue either one exclusively are forcibly prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils,Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ nor, I think, will the human race. Ã¢â‚¬ (Republic 473c-d) Plato describes these Ã¢â‚¬Å"philosopher kingsÃ¢â‚¬ as Ã¢â‚¬Å"those who love the sight of truthÃ¢â‚¬ (Republic 475c) and supports the idea with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine. According to him, sailing and health are not things that everyone is qualified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings. However, it must be taken into account that the ideal city outlined in the Republic is qualified by Socrates as the ideal luxurious city, examined to determine how it is that injustice and justice grow in a city (Republic 372e). According to Socrates, the Ã¢â‚¬Å"trueÃ¢â‚¬ and Ã¢â‚¬Å"healthyÃ¢â‚¬ city is instead the one first outlined in book II of the Republic, 369cÃ¢â‚¬â€œ372d, containing farmers, craftsmen, merchants, and wage-earners, but lacking the guardian class of philosopher-kings as well as delicacies such as Ã¢â‚¬Å"perfumed oils, incense, prostitutes, and pastriesÃ¢â‚¬ , in addition to paintings, gold, ivory, couches, a multitude of occupations such as poets and hunters, and war. In addition, the ideal city is used as an image to illuminate the state of oneÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s soul, or the will, reason, and desires combined in the human body. Socrates is attempting to make an image of a rightly ordered human, and then later goes on to describe the different kinds of humans that can be observed, from tyrants to lovers of money in various kinds of cities. The ideal city is not promoted, but only used to magnify the different kinds of individual humans and the state of their soul. However, the philosopher king image was used by many after Plato to justify their personal political beliefs. The philosophic soul according to Socrates has reason, will, and desires united in virtuous harmony. A philosopher has the moderate love for wisdom and the courage to act according to wisdom. Wisdom is knowledge about the Good or the right relations between all that exists. Wherein it concerns states and rulers, Plato has made interesting arguments. For instance he asks which is betterÃ¢â‚¬â€a bad democracy or a country reigned by a tyrant. He argues that it is better to be ruled by a bad tyrant, than be a bad democracy (since here all the people are now responsible for such actions, rather than one individual committing many bad deeds. ) This is emphasised within the Republic as Plato describes the event of mutiny onboard a ship. Plato suggests the ships crew to be in line with the democratic rule of many and the captain, although inhibited through ailments, the tyrant. PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s description of this event is parallel to that of democracy within the state and the inherent problems that arise. According to Plato, a state made up of different kinds of souls will, overall, decline from an aristocracy (rule by the best) to a timocracy (rule by the honorable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a democracy (rule by the people), and finally to tyranny (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant). Plato went on to study with Socrates. He learned to reason and debate through Socrates. Plato was very close to him, and when he watched SocratesÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ trial and murder in 399 BC, it disillusioned him greatly. He no longer trusted the government of Greece; so he decided to open a school in Athens instead of going into politics like everyone in his family had. PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s school for philosophers was started so that he could train those who would some day be his leaders of cities. His most famous student was Aristotle who later tutored Alexander the Great. Plato promoted ideas that would eventually effect even Thomas Aquinas who changed Catholic Doctrine to make it conform to the works of Aristotle. PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s ideas have greatly influenced the thinking of modern governments such as in the founding of the American system. For example, Plato stated, Ã¢â‚¬Å"Unless philosophers bear kingly rule in cities or those who are now called kings and princes become genuine and adequate philosophers, and political power and philosophy are brought together . . . there will be no respite from evil for cities. Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Plato and Ã¢â‚¬Å"The price good men pay for indifference to public affairs is to be ruled by evil men. Ã¢â‚¬ From these first democratic societies of the Greeks, PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s teaching has not neccesarily been proven over time. The political philosopher, Hilter, for example, was democratically elected by an intelligent populace who were very concerned with public affairs. PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s thoughts about perceptions of reality are still of interest today. One allegory went something like this: Suppose a few men were captured when they were born, and made to live in a cave. They are chained by their neck and feet so that they cannot move at all. The men are facing a wall of stone. Behind them burns a fire. In front of that is a wall along which their captors walk with puppets in their hands. The only truth they know is that of what shadows look like and muffled sound echoing throughout the hall. They know not what a true boat looks like, just the shadow of a boat. They make words for the objects they see. One day one of the men breaks free and gets out of the cave into the world. He sees the fire and the puppets and knows that all he has known all his life was just a piece of all he knew. He got to the outdoors and was blinded by the sun. He had to re-learn what the world really was like. He learned what true boats looked like and found that they were not at all like their shadows. He decided that his friends in the cave should also know that what they saw was not real, but was just an image cast from a wavering fire. When he went down and told them, they laughed at him and told him he was wrong. They said Ã¢â‚¬ËœLook! Can you not see the wall? That on the wall is a boat. Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ He persisted in his story of the light, and they eventually killed him. This great analogy can apply to what we know about heavens. As it is written in 1 Corinthians 13:12, Ã¢â‚¬Å"For now we see through a glass, darkly; but then face to face: now I know in part; but then shall I know even as also I am known. Ã¢â‚¬ Plato sensed that there was a reality apart from his perception as many had sensed before him. The wisest man that ever lived, Solomon, acknowledged in Ecclesiastes 1 that Ã¢â‚¬Å"there is nothing new under the sunÃ¢â‚¬ . Indeed, centuries before Plato, it was recorded in Job 12:22, Ã¢â‚¬Å"He [God] reveals mysteries from the darkness and brings the deep darkness into light. Ã¢â‚¬Å" The mysterious shadows of life can only be brought to the light of understanding by God as explained by the Apostle in John 1:5 Ã¢â‚¬Å"And the light shineth in darkness; and the darkness comprehended it not. Ã¢â‚¬ And they killed what they didnÃ¢â‚¬â„¢t understand as they were afraid of the reality of their sins and crucified the Light. Plato knew of this human fear factor, Ã¢â‚¬Å"We can easily forgive a child who is afraid of the dark. The real tragedy of life is when men are afraid of the light. Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â‚¬â€œPlato Although Plato died in 347 BC, but his teaching continues to influence governments systems and even doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church. Most philosophers from antiquity up to today have stood on PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s broad shoulders attempting to use what he offered and see beyond the caveÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s shadows. ARISTOTLE Aristotle (b. 384 Ã¢â‚¬â€œ d. 322 BCE), was a Greek philosopher, logician, and scientist. Along with his teacher Plato, Aristotle is generally regarded as one of the most influential ancient thinkers in a number of philosophical fields, including political theory. Aristotle was born in Stagira in northern Greece, and his father was a court physician to the king of Macedon. As a young man he studied in PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s Academy in Athens. After PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s death he left Athens to conduct philosophical and biological research in Asia Minor and Lesbos, and he was then invited by King Philip II of Macedon to tutor his young son, Alexander the Great. Soon after Alexander succeeded his father, consolidated the conquest of the Greek city-states, and launched the invasion of the Persian Empire. Aristotle returned as a resident alien to Athens, and was a close friend of Antipater, the Macedonian viceroy. At this time (335Ã¢â‚¬â€œ323 BCE) he wrote, or at least worked on, some of his major treatises, including the Politics. When Alexander died suddenly, Aristotle had to flee from Athens because of his Macedonian connections, and he died soon after. AristotleÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s life seems to have influenced his political thought in various ways: his interest in biology seems to be expressed in the naturalism of his politics; his interest in comparative politics and his sympathies for democracy as well as monarchy may have been encouraged by his travels and experience of diverse political systems; he criticizes harshly, while borrowing extensively, from PlatoÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s Republic, Statesman, and Laws; and his own Politics is intended to guide rulers and statesmen, reflecting the high political circles in which he moved. Political Science in General The modern word Ã¢â‚¬ËœpoliticalÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ derives from the Greek politikos, Ã¢â‚¬Ëœof, or pertaining to, the polisÃ¢â‚¬â„¢. (The Greek term polis will be translated here as Ã¢â‚¬Ëœcity-stateÃ¢â‚¬â„¢. It is also translated as Ã¢â‚¬ËœcityÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ or Ã¢â‚¬ËœpolisÃ¢â‚¬â„¢, or simply anglicized as Ã¢â‚¬ËœpolisÃ¢â‚¬â„¢. City-states like Athens and Sparta were relatively small and cohesive units, in which political, religious, and cultural concerns were intertwined. The extent of their similarity to modern nation-states is controversial. ) AristotleÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s word for Ã¢â‚¬ËœpoliticsÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ is politike, which is short for politike episteme or Ã¢â‚¬Ëœpolitical scienceÃ¢â‚¬â„¢. It belongs to one of the three main branches of science, which Aristotle distinguishes by their ends or objects. Contemplative science (including physics and metaphysics) is concerned with truth or knowledge for its own sake; practical science with good action; and productive science with making useful or beautiful. Politics is a practical science, since it is concerned with the noble action or happiness of the citizens (although it resembles a productive science in that it seeks to create, preserve, and reform political systems). Aristotle thus understands politics as a normative or prescriptive discipline rather than as a purely empirical or descriptive inquiry. In the Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle describes his subject matter as political science, which he characterizes as the most authoritative science. It prescribes which sciences are to be studied in the city-state, and the others Ã¢â‚¬â€ such as military science, household management, and rhetoric Ã¢â‚¬â€ fall under its authority. Since it governs the other practical sciences, their ends serve as means to its end, which is nothing less than the human good. Ã¢â‚¬Å"Even if the end is the same for an individual and for a city-state, that of the city-state seems at any rate greater and more complete to attain and preserve. For although it is worthy to attain it for only an individual, it is nobler and more divine to do so for a nation or city-stateÃ¢â‚¬ (EN I. 2. 1094b7-10). AristotleÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s political science encompasses the two fields which modern philosophers distinguish as ethics and political philosophy. Political philosophy in the narrow sense is roughly speaking the subject of his treatise called the Politics. For a further discussion of this topic, see the following supplementary document: 2. AristotleÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s View of Politics Political science studies the tasks of the politician or statesman (politikos), in much the way that medical science concerns the work of the physician (see Politics IV. 1). It is, in fact, the body of knowledge that such practitioners, if truly expert, will also wield in pursuing their tasks. The most important task for the politician is, in the role of lawgiver, to frame the appropriate constitution for the city-state. This involves enduring laws, customs, and institutions (including a system of moral education) for the citizens. Once the constitution is in place, the politician needs to take the appropriate measures to maintain it, to introduce reforms when he finds them necessary, and to prevent developments which might subvert the political system. This is the province of legislative science, which Aristotle regards as more important than politics as exercised in everyday political activity such as the passing of decrees. Aristotle frequently compares the politician to a craftsman. The analogy is imprecise because politics, in the strict sense of legislative science, is a form of practical knowledge, while a craft like architecture or medicine is a form of productive knowledge. However, the comparison is valid to the extent that the politician produces, operates, maintains a legal system according to universal principles (EN VI. 8 and X. 9). In order to appreciate this analogy it is helpful to observe that Aristotle explains the production of an artifact in terms of four causes: the material, formal, efficient, and final causes (Phys. II. 3 and Met. A. 2). For example, clay (material cause) is molded into a vase shape (formal cause) by a potter (efficient or moving cause) so that it can contain liquid (final cause). One can also explain the existence of the city-state in terms of the four causes. It is a kind of community, that is, a collection of parts having some functions and interests in common. Hence, it is made up of parts, which Aristotle describes in various.